Action Namespace

Core Definition

Action frames foreground the AGENTIVE ROLE with emphasis on activities and processes performed by sentient agents, where the activity itself is the primary semantic content rather than any resultant state or change. These frames center on what agents do - the actions they perform - independent of whether those actions produce specific outcomes or results.

Theoretical foundation: Action frames encode the basic template:

ACT(Agent, Activity)
  [with optional: MANNER(how)]
  [with optional: LOCATION(where)]
  [with optional: TIME(when)]

Unlike causatives which encode CAUSE(x, BECOME(State(y))), action frames encode agentive activity without requiring a resultant state. The agent is the primary participant, and the activity or process is profiled, not the outcome.

Key characteristics:

• Agent-centric: A sentient, volitional agent is required
• Process/activity-oriented: The doing itself is semantically salient
• Atelic (typically): No inherent endpoint or required result state
• Agentive: Involves intentional, voluntary actions (though degree varies)
• Dynamic: Involves change/happening over time

Vendler aspectual class: Primarily Activities (atelic, durative processes) but can include some Accomplishments when focus is on process rather than result

Philosophical grounding: Action frames capture what is central to Action Theory in philosophy - intentional behavior by agents. They relate to agency, volition, and intentional action without necessarily requiring causation of external changes.

Activity Types: Major Domains

Action frames divide into several major subtypes based on the kind of activity performed.

Motion Activities

Definition: Activities involving physical displacement or movement of the agent's body through space, where the motion itself is the primary content (not the path or goal).

Semantic template: ACT(Agent, Motion_Activity)

Examples:

a) Manner of motion (no specified path):

João correu (João ran)
- Agent: João
- Activity: running
- No specified path or goal
- Atelic: can continue indefinitely

Maria nadou (Maria swam)
- Agent: Maria
- Activity: swimming
- No endpoint specified

Pedro voou (Pedro flew)
- Agent: Pedro
- Activity: flying

b) Self-propelled motion:

João pulou (João jumped)
Maria saltou (Maria leaped)
Pedro dançou (Pedro danced)

Properties:

• Agent moves their own body
• No required Patient or Theme
• Activity can be iterated or prolonged
• Compatible with durative expressions: João correu por duas horas

Contrast with Transition namespace:

• Action: João correu (focus on activity of running)
• Transition: João foi para casa (focus on path from source to goal)

Work and Labor Activities

Definition: Activities involving productive work, effort, or labor where the agent engages in goal-directed but not necessarily result-producing actions.

Semantic template: ACT(Agent, Work_Activity)

Examples:

a) General work:

João trabalhou (João worked)
- Agent: João
- Activity: working
- No specific product mentioned
- Atelic: *trabalhou por oito horas*

Maria estudou (Maria studied)
- Agent: Maria
- Activity: studying
- Process of learning (not result)

Pedro pesquisou (Pedro researched)
- Agent: Pedro
- Activity: researching

b) Domain-specific labor:

João ensinou (João taught)
Maria dirigiu (Maria drove)
Pedro escreveu (Pedro wrote)

Note: Some of these verbs can also be causative when they have objects with clear results:

• Pedro escreveu (Action - writing activity)
• Pedro escreveu um livro (Causative - created a book)

Properties:

• Agent engages in effortful activity
• May or may not produce tangible results
• Often professional or skilled activities
• Can be bounded by time: trabalhou das 9h às 17h

Performance and Expression Activities

Definition: Activities involving expressive, performative, or communicative actions where the agent produces sounds, movements, or expressions.

Semantic template: ACT(Agent, Performance_Activity)

Examples:

a) Vocal/sound production:

João cantou (João sang)
Maria gritou (Maria shouted)
Pedro falou (Pedro spoke)
Ana murmurou (Ana murmured)

b) Musical performance:

João tocou (João played [an instrument])
Maria dançou (Maria danced)

c) Physical expression:

João gesticulou (João gestured)
Maria acenou (Maria waved)
Pedro sorriu (Pedro smiled)

Properties:

• Produces perceptible output (sound, movement)
• Often communicative intent
• Can be artistic or expressive
• May have audience or may be solo

Interaction and Social Activities

Definition: Activities involving social interaction, communication, or coordinated action with others.

Semantic template: ACT(Agent, Social_Activity, [with_Participant])

Examples:

a) Conversational:

João conversou (com Maria) (João conversed with Maria)
Maria discutiu (com Pedro) (Maria discussed with Pedro)
Pedro debateu (Pedro debated)

b) Collaborative:

João colaborou (João collaborated)
Maria participou (Maria participated)
Pedro cooperou (Pedro cooperated)

c) Competitive:

João competiu (João competed)
Maria lutou (Maria fought)
Pedro disputou (Pedro contested)

Properties:

• Involves other participants (explicit or implicit)
• Often reciprocal or mutual actions
• Social or interpersonal context
• May be cooperative or adversarial

Bodily and Physiological Activities

Definition: Activities related to basic bodily functions and physiological processes under volitional control.

Semantic template: ACT(Agent, Bodily_Activity)

Examples:

a) Basic bodily functions:

João respirou (João breathed)
Maria dormiu (Maria slept)
Pedro comeu (Pedro ate)
Ana bebeu (Ana drank)

b) Postural activities:

João sentou (João sat down)
Maria levantou (Maria stood up)
Pedro deitou (Pedro lay down)

Properties:

• Involve agent's body
• Some voluntary, some semi-automatic
• Basic survival or comfort functions
• Often intransitive

Cognitive Activities

Definition: Mental activities where the agent engages in cognitive processes (thinking, planning, imagining) as activities in themselves.

Semantic template: ACT(Agent, Cognitive_Activity, [about_Content])

Examples:

a) Thinking activities:

João pensou (João thought)
Maria refletiu (Maria reflected)
Pedro imaginou (Pedro imagined)
Ana considerou (Ana considered)

b) Planning activities:

João planejou (João planned)
Maria organizou (Maria organized)
Pedro preparou (Pedro prepared)

Properties:

• Mental/cognitive domain
• Agent has control over process
• Can take propositional complements
• Often purposeful or goal-directed

Agentivity and Control

A defining feature of Action frames is the presence of an Agent - a sentient entity with volitional control over the action.

Properties of Agents in Action Frames

1. Sentience: The agent is a conscious, sentient being

✓ João correu (João ran - sentient agent)
✗ *A pedra correu (The stone ran - inanimate, cannot be agent of running)

2. Volition: The agent has volitional control

✓ João decidiu correr (João decided to run - volitional)
✓ João correu voluntariamente (João ran voluntarily)

3. Intentionality: The agent intends to perform the activity

✓ João correu para se exercitar (João ran to exercise - purposeful)
✓ João trabalhou deliberadamente (João worked deliberately)

4. Responsibility: The agent is responsible for the action

✓ João é responsável por ter corrido (João is responsible for having run)

Diagnostic Tests for Agentivity

Test 1: Imperative Agentive actions can take imperative form:

✓ Corre! (Run!)
✓ Trabalhe! (Work!)
✓ Cante! (Sing!)

Test 2: Purpose clauses Compatible with para + infinitive (in order to):

✓ João correu para se exercitar (ran in order to exercise)
✓ Maria trabalhou para ganhar dinheiro (worked in order to earn money)

Test 3: Manner adverbs of intentionality

✓ João correu deliberadamente (ran deliberately)
✓ Maria trabalhou cuidadosamente (worked carefully)

Test 4: "Decidir" (decide to) Can be embedded under decision verbs:

✓ João decidiu correr (decided to run)
✓ Maria decidiu trabalhar (decided to work)

Telicity and Aspect

A crucial property distinguishing Action frames from Causative frames is telicity - whether the event has an inherent endpoint.

Atelic Activities (Most Action Frames)

Definition: Activities with no inherent endpoint - they can continue indefinitely and don't culminate in a specific result state.

Vendler class: Activities

Examples:

João correu (João ran)
Maria trabalhou (Maria worked)
Pedro cantou (Pedro sang)

Aspectual properties:

1. Compatible with durative "por X tempo" (for X time):

✓ João correu por duas horas (ran for two hours)
✓ Maria trabalhou por oito horas (worked for eight hours)

2. Incompatible with "em X tempo" (in X time - completion):

✗ *João correu em duas horas (ran in two hours - odd without coercion)
✗ *Maria trabalhou em oito horas (worked in eight hours - odd)

3. Compatible with progressive:

✓ João está correndo (João is running)
✓ Maria está trabalhando (Maria is working)

4. No specific result state:

João correu → ✗ *João está corrido (no result state)
Maria trabalhou → ✗ *Maria está trabalhada (no result state)

5. "Parar de" (stop) test: Atelic activities can be stopped at any point without canceling the activity:

✓ João parou de correr (João stopped running - still counts as having run)
✓ Maria parou de trabalhar (Maria stopped working - still counts as having worked)

Telic Accomplishments (Some Action Frames)

Some action frames can be telic when they involve activities with inherent endpoints or when bounded by objects/complements.

Examples:

João escreveu uma carta (João wrote a letter)
- Activity: writing
- Endpoint: completed letter
- Can be Action (focus on writing activity) or Causative (focus on created letter)

Maria correu um quilômetro (Maria ran a kilometer)
- Activity: running
- Endpoint: one kilometer distance
- Bounded activity becomes telic

Aspectual shift: Adding measure phrases or objects can shift atelic to telic:

Atelic (unbounded):

João correu (por uma hora) - activity focus

Telic (bounded):

João correu um quilômetro (em 10 minutos) - accomplishment with endpoint

Transitivity and Argument Structure

Action frames vary in their argument structure and transitivity.

Intransitive Actions (Most Common)

Structure: Agent (subject) only, no object

Examples:

João correu (João ran)
Maria dormiu (Maria slept)
Pedro trabalhou (Pedro worked)
Ana dançou (Ana danced)

Properties:

• Single argument (Agent)
• No Patient or Theme affected
• Activity is self-contained
• Agent is both doer and only participant

Transitive Actions with Non-affected Objects

Some actions can take objects, but the objects are not affected or changed (contrast with Causative):

Examples:

João tocou o violão (João played the guitar)
- Object: violão (guitar)
- Guitar is instrument, not affected entity
- No change to guitar's state

Maria dirigiu o carro (Maria drove the car)
- Object: carro (car)
- Car is instrument of driving
- No change to car's state (assuming normal operation)

Diagnostic: Object is not affected/changed

ACTION: João tocou o violão → Violão não mudou (Guitar didn't change)
CAUSATIVE: João quebrou o violão → Violão mudou (quebrado) (Guitar changed - broken)

Actions with Oblique Complements

Many actions take oblique complements (PPs) rather than direct objects:

Examples:

João conversou com Maria (João conversed with Maria)
- Oblique: com Maria
- Reciprocal/social activity

Maria participou do evento (Maria participated in the event)
- Oblique: do evento
- Locative/involvement

Pedro falou sobre política (Pedro spoke about politics)
- Oblique: sobre política
- Topic/content

Manner and Modification

Action frames are often specified or modified by manner expressions, indicating how the action is performed.

Manner Adverbs

Examples:

João correu rapidamente (João ran quickly)
Maria trabalhou cuidadosamente (Maria worked carefully)
Pedro cantou alegremente (Pedro sang happily)
Ana dançou graciosamente (Ana danced gracefully)

Types of manner:

• Speed: rapidamente, lentamente, depressa
• Care: cuidadosamente, descuidadamente
• Attitude: alegremente, tristemente, entusiasticamente
• Quality: bem, mal, perfeitamente

Manner-of-Action Verbs

Some verbs lexicalize specific manners of more basic actions:

Motion:

• Basic: mover-se (move)
• Manner-specific: correr (run), andar (walk), rastejar (crawl), saltar (jump)

Speaking:

• Basic: falar (speak)
• Manner-specific: gritar (shout), sussurrar (whisper), murmurar (murmur)

Working:

• Basic: trabalhar (work)
• Manner-specific: esforçar-se (exert oneself), labutar (toil), dedicar-se (dedicate oneself)

Diagnostic Tests for Action Frames

Test 1: Agentivity Tests

Imperative:

✓ Corra! (Run!) → ACTION
✗ *Quebre! (Break! - requires object) → CAUSATIVE
✗ *Ocorra! (Occur! - no agent) → EVENTIVE

Test 2: Telicity Tests

"Por X tempo" (for X time):

✓ João correu por duas horas → ACTION (atelic)
? João quebrou o vaso por duas horas → CAUSATIVE (odd - telic event)

"Em X tempo" (in X time):

? João correu em duas horas (odd without endpoint) → ACTION
✓ João quebrou o vaso em um segundo → CAUSATIVE (telic)

Test 3: Result State Test

Does action entail verifiable result state?

ACTION: João correu → ✗ *João está corrido (no result state)
CAUSATIVE: João quebrou o vaso → ✓ O vaso está quebrado (result state exists)

Test 4: Transitivity Test

Can occur intransitively with agent only?

✓ João correu → ACTION (intransitive agent activity)
✗ *João quebrou → CAUSATIVE (requires object)

Test 5: Purpose/Goal Modification

Compatible with purpose clauses?

✓ João correu para se exercitar (ran to exercise) → ACTION
✓ João quebrou o vaso para irritar Maria (broke to annoy) → CAUSATIVE
Both compatible, so not distinctive alone

Test 6: Activity Continuation

Can be stopped and restarted without negating the activity?

✓ João parou de correr e depois continuou → Still counts as "ran"
✗ *João parou de quebrar o vaso e depois continuou → Odd (breaking is punctual)

Boundary Cases and Namespace Overlaps

Action frames have important boundaries with several other namespaces.

Action vs. Causative

Core distinction: Result-orientation and telicity

Action (Process-oriented, atelic):

João correu (João ran)
- Focus: activity of running
- No required result
- Atelic: *correu por uma hora*
- ACT(João, run)

Causative (Result-oriented, telic):

João quebrou o vaso (João broke the vase)
- Focus: result (broken vase)
- Clear result state
- Telic: *quebrou em um segundo*
- CAUSE(João, BECOME(broken(vaso)))

Ambiguous cases:

João empurrou Maria (João pushed Maria)

• Action reading: Activity of pushing (process focus)
• Causative reading: Caused Maria to move/fall (result focus)

João escreveu (João wrote)

• Action reading: Writing activity (João escreveu por horas)
• Causative reading (with object): Created text (João escreveu um livro)

Classification guideline:

• Has clear, independently verifiable result? → Causative
• No clear result, focus on activity? → Action
• Ambiguous? → Context-dependent or dual classification

Action vs. Eventive

Core distinction: Agency - presence of volitional agent

Action (Agent required):

João correu (João ran)
- Sentient agent: João
- Volitional activity
- Can take imperatives: *Corra!*

Eventive (No agent required):

Choveu (It rained)
O vento soprou (The wind blew)
- No volitional agent
- Natural phenomena
- Cannot take imperatives: ✗ *Chova!*

Clear boundary: If sentient, volitional agent is required and profiled → Action; if agent is absent or not required → Eventive

Action vs. Experiential

Core distinction: Domain - physical/observable vs. mental/perceptual

Action (Observable activity):

João correu (João ran)
- Physical activity
- Externally observable
- Bodily movement

Experiential (Mental/perceptual):

João pensou (João thought)
- Mental activity
- Not externally observable
- Cognitive process

Overlap: Cognitive actions that are volitional

João pensou sobre o problema (João thought about the problem)

• Can be Action (volitional cognitive activity)
• Can be Experiential (cognitive process)
• Classification depends on whether focus is on agency or mental domain

Action vs. Inchoative

Core distinction: Profiled participant

Action (Agent profiled):

João correu (João ran)
- Agent is subject and focus
- Agentive activity

Inchoative (Theme profiled, no agent):

O vaso quebrou (The vase broke)
- Theme is subject
- No agent mentioned
- Focus on result/change

Clear boundary: Action requires agent; Inchoative focuses on affected entity without agent.

Action vs. Transition

Core distinction: Path/Goal vs. Activity

Action (Activity focus):

João correu (João ran)
- Focus: manner of motion (running)
- No specified path or goal
- ACT(João, run)

Transition (Path/Goal focus):

João foi para casa (João went home)
- Focus: path from source to goal
- Directed motion
- MOVE(João, to_Goal(casa))

Overlap: Motion verbs can sometimes be both

João correu para casa (João ran home)

• Action reading: Running activity with destination (correu is main verb)
• Transition reading: Directed motion via running (para casa is profiled)

Classification guideline:

• Path/Goal is central and profiled? → Transition
• Manner of motion is central? → Action

Summary Table: Action Frame Properties

Property	Value	Example	Test
Agent	Required	João correu	Imperative: ✓ Corra!
Telicity	Atelic (typical)	correr, trabalhar	✓ por X tempo
Result state	No (typical)	correu → ✗ corrido	No result state adjective
Transitivity	Intransitive (typical)	João correu	No required object
Vendler class	Activity	correr, trabalhar	Durative, no endpoint
Domain	Physical/observable	correr, cantar	Externally perceivable

Summary Table: Action vs. Other Namespaces

Distinction	Action	Other Namespace	Key Diagnostic
vs. Causative	No result focus	Has result state	Result state test
vs. Eventive	Agent required	No agent	Agentivity tests
vs. Experiential	Observable activity	Mental/perceptual	Domain test
vs. Inchoative	Agent profiled	Theme profiled	Subject role
vs. Transition	Activity focus	Path/Goal focus	Path specification

Comprehensive Diagnostic Test Battery

Test	Action Result	Non-Action Result
Imperative	✓ Natural	✗ Odd or impossible
Agentivity	Requires agent	Agent optional/absent
Por X tempo	✓ Compatible	? Marginal (if telic)
Result state	✗ No result	✓ Has result (Causative)
Intransitive	✓ Often	Varies by namespace
Purpose clause	✓ Compatible	Varies
Manner adverbs	✓ Natural	Varies