Stative Namespace

Core Definition

Stative frames foreground the FORMAL ROLE, emphasizing conditions, properties, or relations that hold over time without internal change or dynamism. These frames center on entities being in particular states, having properties, or standing in relations to other entities, rather than undergoing events or processes.

Theoretical foundation: Statives encode the basic template STATE(x) or RELATION(x, y), where an entity has a property or stands in a relation without any change occurring. Unlike events (which happen and have temporal boundaries), states hold or obtain over intervals.

Key characteristics:

Non-dynamic: No internal change or development
Durative: Extend over time intervals rather than occurring at points
Homogeneous: Any subinterval of a state is also that state (divisibility property)
No inherent endpoint: Don't naturally terminate (atelic)
No agency: Typically no volitional agent causing or controlling the state

Vendler aspectual class: States (the most basic aspectual category)

Philosophical grounding: States relate to properties (what something is like), categories (what kind of thing something is), and relations (how things stand to each other). This connects to the FORMAL quale - the essential nature or classification of entities.

Stative Types: A Comprehensive Taxonomy

Stative frames are highly heterogeneous. We can distinguish several major types based on what kind of condition or relation they encode.

Stage-Level States (Temporary/Transient)

Definition: States that hold temporarily and can change without the entity fundamentally changing identity. These are contingent properties that an entity has at a particular time.

Theoretical background (Carlson 1977, Kratzer 1995): Stage-level predicates denote properties that hold of temporal stages or manifestations of individuals, not the individuals themselves.

Semantic template: STATE(x, at_time_t) - state holds at specific time/situation

Portuguese realization: Typically with copula estar (temporary state marker)

Subtypes of Stage-Level States

a) Physical condition states:

João está cansado ("João is tired")
Maria está doente ("Maria is sick")
A criança está com fome ("The child is hungry")
Pedro está molhado ("Pedro is wet")

b) Emotional/psychological condition states:

João está feliz ("João is happy")
Maria está nervosa ("Maria is nervous")
Pedro está preocupado ("Pedro is worried")
Ana está zangada ("Ana is angry")

c) Positional/postural states:

João está sentado ("João is sitting/seated")
Maria está em pé ("Maria is standing")
O livro está aberto ("The book is open")
A porta está fechada ("The door is closed")

d) Locational states (temporary):

João está em casa ("João is at home")
Maria está no Brasil ("Maria is in Brazil")
O carro está na garagem ("The car is in the garage")

e) Occupational/role states (temporary):

João está trabalhando como professor ("João is working as a teacher" - temporary role)
Maria está de plantão ("Maria is on duty")

Properties of stage-level states

Temporariness: Can begin and end without changing entity's identity
- João está cansado agora, mas não estava ontem (is tired now, wasn't yesterday)

Compatibility with location/time modification:

✓ João está cansado em casa
✓ Maria estava feliz durante a festa

Can serve as complements to perception verbs:

✓ Eu vi João cansado (I saw João tired)
✓ Encontrei Maria feliz (I found Maria happy)

Compatible with quando (when) clauses:

✓ Quando João está cansado, ele dorme cedo
(When João is tired, he sleeps early)

Existential constructions possible:

✓ Há muitas pessoas cansadas aqui
(There are many tired people here)

Individual-Level States (Permanent/Inherent)

Definition: States that characterize the essential, permanent, or long-lasting properties of an entity. These are essential or stable properties that define what the entity fundamentally is.

Theoretical background: Individual-level predicates denote properties that hold of individuals themselves across time, not just at particular stages.

Semantic template: STATE(x) - state holds of entity essentially/permanently

Portuguese realization: Typically with copula ser (permanent/essential state marker)

Subtypes of Individual-Level States

a) Identity/essence states:

João é brasileiro ("João is Brazilian")
Maria é mulher ("Maria is a woman")
Pedro é humano ("Pedro is human")
Isto é uma cadeira ("This is a chair")

b) Inherent physical properties:

João é alto ("João is tall")
Maria é loira ("Maria is blonde")
O céu é azul ("The sky is blue")
O açúcar é branco ("Sugar is white")

c) Character/personality traits:

João é inteligente ("João is intelligent")
Maria é generosa ("Maria is generous")
Pedro é corajoso ("Pedro is brave")
Ana é tímida ("Ana is shy")

d) Origin/provenance:

João é de São Paulo ("João is from São Paulo")
Este vinho é da França ("This wine is from France")

e) Material/composition:

A mesa é de madeira ("The table is of wood")
O anel é de ouro ("The ring is of gold")

f) Ownership/belonging (permanent possession):

Este livro é meu ("This book is mine")
A casa é de João ("The house is João's")

Properties of individual-level states

Permanence/stability: Hold across time, rarely change
- João é brasileiro (holds throughout life, essentially)

Incompatibility with temporal/locational modification:

✗ *João é brasileiro em casa (odd - property doesn't vary by location)
✗ *Maria é alta às terças (odd - property doesn't vary by day)

Incompatible with perception verb complements:

✗ *Eu vi João brasileiro (odd - can't perceive nationality directly)
? Eu vi João alto (marginal - perceive height only indirectly)

Incompatible with quando clauses (usually):

✗ *Quando João é brasileiro, ele fala português
(odd - being Brazilian is constant, not conditional)

Generic/law-like interpretations:

✓ Brasileiros são alegres (Brazilians are cheerful - generic statement)

The Stage-Level vs. Individual-Level Contrast

Many adjectives can appear with either estar or ser, yielding different interpretations:

Adjective	With ESTAR (stage-level)	With SER (individual-level)
bonito	Maria está bonita (looks beautiful today)	Maria é bonita (is beautiful as trait)
jovem	João está jovem (looks/feels young)	João é jovem (is young in age)
magro	Pedro está magro (is thin now, lost weight)	Pedro é magro (is thin by nature)
alegre	Ana está alegre (is happy now)	Ana é alegre (is cheerful by personality)
gordo	O gato está gordo (is fat now, gained weight)	O gato é gordo (is fat by nature)

Semantic contrast:

ESTAR + adjective: Temporary state at particular time
SER + adjective: Essential/permanent characteristic

Example analysis:

Maria ESTÁ bonita hoje
(Maria is-TEMP beautiful today)
= Maria looks beautiful today (more than usual, or made effort)
= Stage-level: temporary condition

Maria É bonita  
(Maria is-PERM beautiful)
= Maria is beautiful (as a general trait)
= Individual-level: permanent characteristic

Locational States

Definition: States describing the spatial location or position of entities.

Semantic template: LOCATED_AT(Figure, Ground) - Figure is located at/in/on Ground

Portuguese realization:

estar for temporary location
ser for event location or permanent situation
ficar for permanent geographic location

Subtypes

a) Temporary location (estar):

João está em casa ("João is at home" - now)
O livro está na mesa ("The book is on the table")
Maria está no Brasil ("Maria is in Brazil" - temporarily)

b) Permanent/characteristic location (ficar - geographic):

São Paulo fica no Brasil ("São Paulo is (located) in Brazil")
A escola fica perto do parque ("The school is (located) near the park")
Onde fica a estação? ("Where is the station (located)?")

c) Event location (ser):

A reunião é na sala 5 ("The meeting is in room 5")
A festa foi em casa ("The party was at home")

Participant structure: Figure-Ground asymmetry

Figure: The located entity (typically smaller, moveable, more salient)

O livro está na mesa (book = Figure)

Ground: The reference location (typically larger, stable, provides reference frame)

O livro está na mesa (table = Ground)

Diagnostic: Figure and Ground cannot swap roles

✓ O livro está na mesa (book on table)
✗ *A mesa está no livro (table on book - pragmatically odd unless special context)

Spatial relations

Contact/Support relations:

em (in/on): O livro está na mesa
sobre (on/on top): O quadro está sobre a parede

Containment relations:

dentro de (inside): A chave está dentro da gaveta
em (in): O café está na xícara

Proximity relations:

perto de (near): A escola fica perto do parque
longe de (far from): A cidade fica longe da praia

Vertical relations:

acima de (above): O quadro está acima do sofá
abaixo de (below): A mesa está abaixo da janela

Landmark-based relations:

ao lado de (beside): João está ao lado de Maria
entre (between): O banco fica entre a padaria e a farmácia

Attributive/Property States

Definition: States describing inherent attributes, properties, or qualities of entities.

Semantic template: HAS_PROPERTY(x, Property)

Subtypes

a) Physical properties:

João é alto ("João is tall" - height)
A mesa é pesada ("The table is heavy" - weight)
O mar é profundo ("The sea is deep" - depth)
O açúcar é doce ("Sugar is sweet" - taste)

b) Color properties:

O céu é azul ("The sky is blue")
A grama é verde ("The grass is green")
Maria tem olhos castanhos ("Maria has brown eyes")

c) Shape properties:

A bola é redonda ("The ball is round")
A mesa é quadrada ("The table is square")
A montanha é pontiaguda ("The mountain is pointy")

d) Texture properties:

A superfície é lisa ("The surface is smooth")
A parede é áspera ("The wall is rough")
O tecido é macio ("The fabric is soft")

e) Temperature properties:

O gelo é frio ("Ice is cold")
O fogo é quente ("Fire is hot")

f) Age properties:

João é jovem ("João is young")
Maria é velha ("Maria is old")
O vinho é antigo ("The wine is old/aged")

Property gradability

Many attributive states are gradable - they admit degree modification:

Scalar properties (more/less possible):

✓ João é muito alto (João is very tall)
✓ Maria é mais inteligente que Pedro (Maria is more intelligent than Pedro)
✓ A mesa é pesadíssima (The table is very heavy - superlative)

Absolute/non-gradable properties (binary):

✗ *João é muito brasileiro (odd - can't be more/less Brazilian)
✗ *Maria é mais grávida que Ana (odd - can't be more pregnant)

Diagnostics for gradability:

Compatible with muito (very)
Compatible with comparative mais...que (more...than)
Compatible with superlative -íssimo

Categorical/Class-Membership States

Definition: States expressing category membership, taxonomic classification, or type identification.

Semantic template: MEMBER_OF(x, Category) or ISA(x, Type)

Portuguese realization: Always with ser (categorical copula)

Examples:

Biological categories:

O cachorro é um mamífero ("The dog is a mammal")
A rosa é uma flor ("The rose is a flower")
João é humano ("João is human")

Artifact categories:

Isto é uma cadeira ("This is a chair")
Aquilo é um carro ("That is a car")
Este objeto é uma ferramenta ("This object is a tool")

Professional/social categories:

João é médico ("João is a doctor")
Maria é professora ("Maria is a teacher")
Pedro é estudante ("Pedro is a student")

Abstract categories:

A democracia é um sistema político ("Democracy is a political system")
O amor é um sentimento ("Love is a feeling")

Properties

Taxonomic hierarchies: Support subsumption reasoning

João é humano
Humano é mamífero
∴ João é mamífero

Necessarily with ser: Cannot use estar for categories

✓ João é médico (João is a doctor)
✗ *João está médico (ungrammatical)

Generic interpretation: Often express kind-level predicates

✓ Cachorros são mamíferos (Dogs are mammals - generic)

Copular Structures in Portuguese: Ser, Estar, Ficar

Portuguese has three main copulas that distribute differently across stative frames. This tripartite distinction is more complex than the Spanish ser/estar system and is crucial for understanding stative frame classification.

SER: Essential/Permanent States

Core function: Links subject to essential, permanent, or definitional properties

Semantic contribution: Marks individual-level predication

Primary uses:

a) Category/identity:

✓ João é médico (João is a doctor)
✓ Isto é uma mesa (This is a table)

b) Essential properties:

✓ João é alto (João is tall - permanent trait)
✓ O açúcar é doce (Sugar is sweet - essential property)

c) Origin/material:

✓ João é de São Paulo (João is from São Paulo)
✓ A mesa é de madeira (The table is (made) of wood)

d) Permanent possession:

✓ Este livro é meu (This book is mine)
✓ A casa é de João (The house is João's)

e) Time/event specification:

✓ A reunião é às 3h (The meeting is at 3pm)
✓ Hoje é segunda-feira (Today is Monday)

f) Passive voice:

✓ O livro foi escrito por João (The book was written by João)

ESTAR: Temporary/Contingent States

Core function: Links subject to temporary, contingent, or changeable conditions

Semantic contribution: Marks stage-level predication

Primary uses:

a) Temporary physical condition:

✓ João está cansado (João is tired)
✓ Maria está doente (Maria is sick)

b) Temporary emotional/psychological state:

✓ Pedro está feliz (Pedro is happy - now)
✓ Ana está nervosa (Ana is nervous)

c) Temporary location:

✓ João está em casa (João is at home - now)
✓ O livro está na mesa (The book is on the table)

d) Posture/position:

✓ João está sentado (João is sitting/seated)
✓ A porta está aberta (The door is open)

e) Progressive aspect (with gerund):

✓ João está trabalhando (João is working)
✓ Maria está comendo (Maria is eating)

f) Result states:

✓ O vaso está quebrado (The vase is broken - result of breaking)
✓ A comida está pronta (The food is ready - result of preparation)

FICAR: Change-of-State & Permanent Location

Core function: Two distinct uses:

Inchoative/change-of-state (become)
Permanent geographic location (be located)

Semantic contribution:

Inchoative: Marks transition into new state
Locational: Marks permanent/characteristic location

Use 1: Inchoative (become)

Structure: Subject changes into new state expressed by predicate

Examples:

a) Emotion/state changes:

✓ João ficou feliz (João became happy)
✓ Maria ficou nervosa (Maria got nervous)
✓ Pedro ficou doente (Pedro got sick)

b) Result of process:

✓ O café ficou frio (The coffee got cold)
✓ A comida ficou pronta (The food became ready)

c) Color changes:

✓ O papel ficou amarelo (The paper turned yellow)
✓ João ficou vermelho de vergonha (João turned red from embarrassment)

Semantic analysis: BECOME(STATE(x))

João ficou feliz = João became [in state of happiness]
Inchoative variant of João está feliz (João is happy)

Contrast with ESTAR:

ESTAR: João está feliz (João is happy - state)
FICAR: João ficou feliz (João became happy - change into state)

Use 2: Permanent geographic location (be located)

Structure: Geographic entity is permanently located at place

Examples:

a) Geographic locations:

✓ São Paulo fica no Brasil (São Paulo is (located) in Brazil)
✓ A escola fica perto do parque (The school is (located) near the park)
✓ Onde fica o museu? (Where is the museum (located)?)

b) Building/landmark location:

✓ O banco fica na esquina (The bank is (located) on the corner)
✓ A loja fica no centro (The store is (located) downtown)

Semantic analysis: PERMANENTLY_LOCATED_AT(Figure, Ground)

Different from estar (temporary location)

Contrast with ESTAR:

ESTAR: João está em São Paulo (João is in São Paulo - temporarily)
FICAR: São Paulo fica no Brasil (São Paulo is located in Brazil - permanently)

Note: Cannot use estar for permanent geographic facts:

✗ *São Paulo está no Brasil (odd - suggests Brazil's location could change!)
✓ São Paulo fica no Brasil (correct - permanent geographic fact)

Copula Selection Summary

Predicate Type	Copula	Example	Meaning
Essential property	SER	João é alto	João is tall (permanent)
Temporary property	ESTAR	João está cansado	João is tired (now)
Category/identity	SER	João é médico	João is a doctor
Temporary location	ESTAR	João está em casa	João is at home (now)
Permanent location	FICAR	A casa fica aqui	The house is located here
Origin	SER	João é de SP	João is from SP
Material	SER	Mesa é de madeira	Table is of wood
Result state	ESTAR	Porta está aberta	Door is open (result)
Change to state	FICAR	João ficou feliz	João became happy
Emotion (state)	ESTAR	João está feliz	João is happy (now)
Personality trait	SER	João é alegre	João is cheerful (trait)

Adjectives that Alternate: Meaning Shifts

Many adjectives can appear with different copulas, yielding systematic meaning shifts:

ALEGRE (cheerful/happy):

João É alegre = João is cheerful (personality trait - individual-level)
João ESTÁ alegre = João is happy (current mood - stage-level)
João FICOU alegre = João became happy (change of state)

BONITO (beautiful):

Maria É bonita = Maria is beautiful (inherent beauty)
Maria ESTÁ bonita = Maria looks beautiful (today, more than usual)
Maria FICOU bonita = Maria became beautiful (transformation)

VELHO (old):

João É velho = João is old (in age - permanent)
João ESTÁ velho = João looks/seems old (appears aged - temporary assessment)
João FICOU velho = João became old / got old (aging process)

Generalizations:

SER: Inherent, permanent, trait-like
ESTAR: Current, temporary, appearance-based
FICAR: Change/transition into state

Diagnostic Criteria for Stativity

How do we identify stative frames? Here are systematic diagnostic tests:

Test 1: Progressive Incompatibility

Principle: True states are incompatible with progressive aspect (or coerce into special readings).

Test: Try adding progressive estar + gerund

Stative (incompatible):

✗ *João está sendo alto (João is being tall - ungrammatical)
✗ *Maria está sendo brasileira (Maria is being Brazilian - ungrammatical)
✗ *A mesa está sendo de madeira (The table is being of wood - ungrammatical)

Non-stative/Eventive (compatible):

✓ João está correndo (João is running)
✓ Maria está comendo (Maria is eating)
✓ Pedro está trabalhando (Pedro is working)

Coercion cases (statives with progressive → special interpretation):

? João está sendo inteligente (João is being intelligent)
  → Coerced to: "acting intelligently (now)" - volitional interpretation
  
? Maria está sendo simpática (Maria is being nice)
  → Coerced to: "acting nice (now)" - volitional behavior, not state

Diagnostic result: If progressive is ungrammatical or requires coercion → STATIVE

Test 2: Imperative Incompatibility

Principle: States cannot be commanded (no volitional control).

Test: Try forming imperative

Stative (incompatible):

✗ *Seja alto! (Be tall! - ungrammatical/nonsensical)
✗ *Seja brasileiro! (Be Brazilian! - cannot command)
✗ *Tenha irmãos! (Have siblings! - cannot command kinship)
✗ *Saiba a resposta! (Know the answer! - knowledge states cannot be commanded)

Exception: Seja + adjective CAN work for behavioral/volitional traits:

✓ Seja gentil! (Be kind! - command to behave kindly)
✓ Seja corajoso! (Be brave! - command to act bravely)

→ These are coerced into eventive/behavioral readings, not true states

Non-stative (compatible):

✓ Corra! (Run!)
✓ Coma! (Eat!)
✓ Trabalhe! (Work!)

Diagnostic result: If imperative impossible or requires behavioral coercion → STATIVE

Test 3: Temporal/Locational Modification Restrictions

Principle: Individual-level states resist temporal/locational modification; stage-level states allow it.

Test: Add locational or temporal modifier

Individual-level states (incompatible):

✗ *João é brasileiro na escola (João is Brazilian at school - odd)
✗ *Maria é alta às terças (Maria is tall on Tuesdays - odd)
✗ *O açúcar é doce no Brasil (Sugar is sweet in Brazil - odd)

Stage-level states (compatible):

✓ João está cansado em casa (João is tired at home)
✓ Maria estava feliz durante a festa (Maria was happy during the party)
✓ Pedro está nervoso no trabalho (Pedro is nervous at work)

Diagnostic result:

If temporal/locational modification odd → INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL STATE
If temporal/locational modification natural → STAGE-LEVEL STATE

Test 4: Perception Verb Complements

Principle (Kratzer 1995): Stage-level predicates can be perceived; individual-level cannot.

Test: Use with perception verbs (ver, encontrar)

Stage-level (compatible):

✓ Eu vi João cansado (I saw João tired)
✓ Encontrei Maria feliz (I found Maria happy)
✓ Vi a porta aberta (I saw the door open)

Individual-level (incompatible):

✗ *Eu vi João brasileiro (I saw João Brazilian - odd)
✗ *Encontrei Maria inteligente (I found Maria intelligent - marginal)

Diagnostic result:

If perception verb complement natural → STAGE-LEVEL
If perception verb complement odd → INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL

Test 5: Existential "There are" Constructions

Principle: Stage-level predicates allow existential constructions; individual-level resist them.

Test: Use há (there is/are) + predicate

Stage-level (compatible):

✓ Há muitas pessoas cansadas aqui (There are many tired people here)
✓ Há crianças doentes na escola (There are sick children at school)

Individual-level (incompatible/marginal):

✗ *Há muitas pessoas brasileiras aqui (There are many Brazilian people here - odd)
✓ Há muitos brasileiros aqui (There are many Brazilians here - OK with noun)

Diagnostic result:

If existential construction natural → STAGE-LEVEL
If existential construction odd → INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL

Test 6: "Still" Test (Ainda)

Principle: States (especially stage-level) are compatible with ainda (still), implying potential for change.

Test: Add ainda (still)

Stage-level (compatible):

✓ João ainda está cansado (João is still tired - implies might change)
✓ Maria ainda está em casa (Maria is still at home - might leave)

Individual-level (incompatible/odd):

? João ainda é brasileiro (João is still Brazilian - odd, nationality doesn't change)
? Maria ainda é alta (Maria is still tall - odd, height doesn't change in adulthood)

Diagnostic result:

If ainda natural → STAGE-LEVEL (changeable state)
If ainda odd → INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL (permanent state)

Test 7: Homogeneity (Subinterval Property)

Principle: States have homogeneous temporal structure - any subinterval of a state is also that state.

Test: If X is in state S from t₁ to t₃, then X is in state S at any subinterval [t₁, t₂] or [t₂, t₃]

Stative (homogeneous):

If: João está cansado de 2pm a 5pm
Then: João está cansado às 3pm (any subinterval)
Then: João está cansado de 2pm a 4pm (any subinterval)

Non-stative/Eventive (non-homogeneous):

If: João correu de 2pm a 5pm
NOT necessarily: João correu de 2pm a 3pm (might have started at 2:30)
Events have structure, phases, beginnings and endings

Diagnostic result: If homogeneity holds → STATIVE

Coercion Contexts: When Statives Become Eventive

Stative predicates can be coerced into eventive readings in certain contexts. This is crucial for frame classification - we need to recognize when apparent statives are actually events.

Inchoative Coercion (Becoming)

Context: When focus shifts from state to entry into state

Mechanism: State predicate → Change-of-state reading

Portuguese trigger: Copula FICAR (become)

Examples:

Stative base:

João é/está feliz (João is happy - STATE)

Inchoative coercion:

João ficou feliz (João became happy - EVENT/INCHOATIVE)
Semantic shift: STATE(happy) → BECOME(STATE(happy))

More examples:

STATE: Maria é/está nervosa (Maria is nervous)
INCHOATIVE: Maria ficou nervosa (Maria got nervous - change)

STATE: O café está frio (The coffee is cold)
INCHOATIVE: O café ficou frio (The coffee got cold - cooling event)

STATE: João é rico (João is rich)
INCHOATIVE: João ficou rico (João became rich - enrichment event)

Classification impact: Inchoative-coerced predicates should be tagged as Inchoative namespace, not Stative, despite having stative bases.

Iterative/Habitual Coercion

Context: When stative predicate gets repeated or habitual interpretation

Mechanism: State → Multiple instances of state

Portuguese trigger: Simple present with frequentative interpretation

Examples:

Stative base:

João está nervoso (João is nervous - single state)

Iterative coercion:

João fica nervoso facilmente (João gets nervous easily - repeated events)
= João has a tendency to become nervous (habitual)

More examples:

Maria é simpática (Maria is nice - permanent trait)
vs.
Maria está sendo simpática (Maria is being nice - current behavior, volitional)

Progressive coercion: Progressive on stative forces volitional behavior reading:

*João é inteligente → STATE (permanent)
?João está sendo inteligente → COERCED EVENT (acting intelligently now, by choice)

Generic/Characterizing Coercion

Context: When temporary state gets interpreted as characteristic property

Mechanism: Stage-level → Individual-level shift

Portuguese trigger: Simple present + generic context

Examples:

Stage-level base:

João está nervoso hoje (João is nervous today - temporary)

Generic coercion:

João é nervoso (João is nervous - as character trait)
= João has tendency to be nervous (characterizing)

Contrast:

STAGE: Maria está alegre hoje (Maria is happy today - temporary mood)
INDIVIDUAL: Maria é alegre (Maria is cheerful - personality trait)

Agentive/Volitional Coercion

Context: When stative adjective in progressive → volitional action

Mechanism: Property state → Intentional behavior

Portuguese trigger: ESTAR + SENDO + adjective (progressive with copula)

Examples:

Non-volitional state base:

João é educado (João is polite - character trait, non-volitional)

Volitional coercion:

João está sendo educado (João is being polite - intentional behavior now)
= João is acting politely (by choice, possibly unusually)

More examples:

STATE: Pedro é egoísta (Pedro is selfish - trait)
VOLITIONAL: Pedro está sendo egoísta (Pedro is being selfish - acting selfishly now)

STATE: Ana é gentil (Ana is kind - trait)
VOLITIONAL: Ana está sendo gentil (Ana is being kind - acting kindly now, by choice)

Felicity conditions: Coercion works best with:

Behavioral/personality adjectives (not physical properties)
Context suggesting unusual or intentional behavior

Infelicitous coercion:

✗ *João está sendo alto (João is being tall - cannot volitionally control height)
✗ *Maria está sendo brasileira (Maria is being Brazilian - cannot volitionally control nationality)

Participant Structure in Stative Frames

Different types of stative frames have characteristic participant structures (argument configurations).

Monadic States (Single Participant)

Structure: One participant has a property or is in a state

Template: STATE(x) or HAS_PROPERTY(x, P)

Examples:

Attributive states:

João é alto (João is tall)
- Participant: João (entity with property)
- Property: alto (tall)

Categorical states:

Maria é médica (Maria is a doctor)
- Participant: Maria (entity)
- Category: médica (doctor)

Emotional states:

Pedro está feliz (Pedro is happy)
- Participant: Pedro (experiencer in state)
- State: feliz (happy)

Figure-Ground Asymmetry in Locational States

Locational states exhibit strong Figure-Ground structure (Talmy 1983):

Figure:

Located object (typically smaller, moveable, focus of attention)
Theme/patient role
Syntactic subject with estar

Ground:

Reference location (typically larger, stable, provides spatial framework)
Location role
Syntactic oblique (PP with em, sobre, etc.)

Examples:

O livro [FIGURE] está na mesa [GROUND]
(The book is on the table)

A cidade [FIGURE] fica no Brasil [GROUND]
(The city is located in Brazil)

Asymmetry diagnostics:

Test 1: Cannot reverse Figure-Ground:

✓ O livro está na mesa (book on table - natural)
✗ *A mesa está no livro (table on book - pragmatically odd unless miniature)

Test 2: Figure is syntactically more prominent:

FIGURE = Subject
GROUND = Oblique PP

Test 3: Figure controls reflexives:

O livro₁ está perto de si₁ mesmo (The book is near itself - reflexive controlled by Figure)

Experiencer-Stimulus in Experiential States

Experiential-type statives have Experiencer-Stimulus structure:

Experiencer: Sentient being having experience Stimulus: Object/content of experience

Examples:

Epistemic states:

João sabe a resposta
- Experiencer: João (knower)
- Stimulus/Content: a resposta (what is known)

Emotional states:

Maria ama Pedro
- Experiencer: Maria (lover)
- Stimulus: Pedro (beloved)

Perceptual states (rare as pure states):

João vê a montanha (daqui)
- Experiencer: João (perceiver)
- Stimulus: a montanha (perceived object)

Negation Patterns in Stative Frames

Statives exhibit special behavior under negation that distinguishes them from events.

State Negation = State Holding

Principle: Negating a state asserts that a different/opposite state holds (not that nothing holds).

Examples:

Affirmative state:

João é alto (João is tall)

Negated state:

João não é alto (João is not tall)
→ João é baixo/médio (João is short/average)
= Asserts opposite state holds

More examples:

Maria não está feliz (Maria is not happy)
→ Maria está triste/neutra (Maria is sad/neutral)

O livro não está na mesa (The book is not on the table)
→ O livro está em outro lugar (The book is in another place)

Key insight: Negation of state → state negation (alternative state), not event negation (event didn't happen)

Contrast with Event Negation

Event negation: Asserts event didn't occur (no alternative event required)

Examples:

Affirmative event:

João correu (João ran)

Negated event:

João não correu (João didn't run)
→ No running event occurred (João might have done nothing, or something else)
≠ João did the opposite of running

Contrast:

EVENT: João não correu = João didn't run (no event)
STATE: João não é alto = João is not tall (opposite property holds)

Negation Scope in Stage-Level vs. Individual-Level

Individual-level negation: Negates essential property

João não é brasileiro (João is not Brazilian)
= João has different nationality
(Permanent property negation)

Stage-level negation: Negates temporary condition

João não está cansado (João is not tired)
= João is in non-tired state (now)
(Temporary state negation)

Summary Table: Stative Frame Properties

Stative Type	Copula	Modifiability	Coercion	Example
Individual-level	SER	No temporal/local	Generic	João é alto
Stage-level	ESTAR	Yes temporal/local	Inchoative (ficar)	João está cansado
Locational (temp)	ESTAR	Yes temporal	Transition	João está em casa
Locational (perm)	FICAR	No (geographic)	None	SP fica no Brasil
Categorical	SER	No	None	João é médico
Attributive	SER/ESTAR	Depends on type	Inchoative (ficar)	Mesa é/está limpa

Comprehensive Diagnostic Test Battery

Test	Stative Result	Eventive Result
Progressive	✗ Incompatible	✓ Compatible
Imperative	✗ Incompatible	✓ Compatible
Temporal modification	IL: ✗ / SL: ✓	✓ Compatible
Perception complement	IL: ✗ / SL: ✓	✓ Compatible
Existential construction	IL: ✗ / SL: ✓	✓ Compatible
Homogeneity	✓ Homogeneous	✗ Non-homogeneous
"Still" (ainda)	SL: ✓ / IL: ✗	✓ Compatible
Negation	State negation	Event negation